Meditation III

Classification of Ideas

1. After a brief recap of his doubts so far, Descartes then begins to classify the contents of his mind. What are the three classes of thought that he identifies? (3 marks) - Answer
2. Of the three classes of thought, which one involves the possibility of error? Why does he think this? Illustrate your answer for each class of thought. (5 marks) - Answer
3. Descartes’s second classification involves the origin of ideas (it is not clear here whether he means just judgements or ideas in general, but the classification can be applied to either). Again, this involves three classes: state what the classes are, what they mean, and give an example of each. (9 marks) - Answer
4. Concerning ideas of the outside world, what two assumptions does Descartes consider for believing that they are trustworthy? Why does he reject these assumptions? (4 marks) - Answer
5. Most philosophers would not disagree with the existence of ideas that come from outside, or that are created by the mind (using outside ideas), but many would criticise the idea that the mind possesses knowledge from birth. List two criticisms, and two possible responses. (4 marks) - Answer

The three classes are judgements, mental images (what he terms “ideas”), and desires (“volitions and affections”). (1 mark for each) Descartes thinks that only judgements can be wrong. (1 mark) This is because only judgements have a truth value (can be right or wrong). (1 mark) For instance, if I have a mental image of a car, that does not in itself involve the conviction that the car actually exists, possesses certain qualities, etc. (1 mark) Similarly, if I desire to own that car, or feel a certain emotion toward it, then I am not committed to its existence, I simply have the feeling. (1 mark) However, if I judge that the car exists, or is in the garage, or generally make some factual statement about it, then I may be wrong – it may not be in the garage. (1 mark) Any other similar examples are fine. Give yourself one mark for each correct name, explanation and illustration. The three types of idea are: “factitious”, meaning created by the mind itself, and an example of this would be something that didn’t actually exist in the world (such as a mermaid); “adventitious”, meaning originating from outside of the mind, such as the idea of a physical object; and “innate”, meaning that they are present from the mind from birth (and have neither an external nor a self-created origin), such as the idea of God, mathematical and logical principles, geometrical figures, etc. Firstly, he supposes that he has a natural desire to believe in the existence of physical objects (“I am so taught by nature”). (1 mark) But he rejects this, because such desires are only really natural tendencies to believe (a “blind impulse”), lacking proper judgement, and these have often led him astray. (1 mark) Secondly, he supposes that these ideas come to him against his will (i.e. from some outside source). (1 mark) However, he also rejects this because, he reasons, there may be some possible power within himself which he has not yet identified, and which is responsible for such ideas (in other words, he cannot be sure that he is not responsible). (1 mark) There are a number of possible criticisms. The problem of proof: the only way we have of checking whether someone possesses an idea or not is to communicate with them, but someone capable of communication might already have acquired the idea from somewhere. (1 mark) The possibility of alternative explanation: we can show that people do acquire ideas from education, environment, culture, etc. – why not accept these possibilities instead? (1 mark)

However, an advocate of innate ideas might respond that there are good reasons to support the theory. Firstly, it is difficult to suppose that all knowledge is learnt (we would have to learn how to learn – which would be impossible); so, there must be a basis for knowledge. (1 mark) Also, possessing innate ideas does not mean that no experience is required, merely that experience reveals innate knowledge (it helps us remember). (1 mark)

Or, any other reasonable points. Clear and Distinct Ideas

1. According to Descartes, some ideas are more clear and distinct than others. What are the qualities of physical objects which he identifies as clear and distinct, and what are those that are less so? What names are these two classes of qualities more commonly known by? Illustrate your answer. (10 marks) - Answer
2. What special quality does the idea of God possess? What does Descartes mean by that quality? (2 marks) - Answer
3. Many philosophers have criticised the distinction between primary and secondary qualities. List two possible criticisms. (2 marks) - Answer

The class of qualities of ideas which are clear and distinct are known as primary qualities (1 mark), and those which are less clear and distinct (or not at all) are known as secondary qualities (1 mark). Primary qualities include: size (length, breadth, height); shape; relative position; motion; substance; duration; number. (1 mark for each – up to a maximum of 3) Secondary qualities include: light and dark; colour; sound; taste; temperature (heat or cold); and texture. (1 mark for each – up to a maximum of 3) So, for instance, a small, smooth, red ball may contain the primary qualities of shape and size, being small and round (1 mark); and also the secondary qualities of colour and texture, being red and smooth. (1 mark) It has, in Descartes’s terms, more “objective reality”. (1 mark) By this, he means that such ideas have a more real existence, and the substances to which they refer are more perfect and clearly perceived; this is what makes them clear and distinct. (1 mark) If you simply said that the idea is the most clear and distinct, then give yourself half a mark. Firstly, there may be some doubt as to what qualifies as a primary quality. For instance, the idea of shape would seem to be something that can change according to an observer’s position; a coin can be round when viewed from above, and elliptical when viewed from an angle – but which is the ‘real’ shape? (1 mark) Secondly, certain secondary qualities which Descartes lists may actually be primary qualities. For instance, temperature: whilst something might feel hot or cold relative to experience, it is possible to measure temperature objectively (e.g. using a thermometer). (1 mark) There are various other possible criticisms – if you’ve thought of any others, list them on the discussion board, or check to see if anyone else has thought of them. The Trademark Argument

1. What principle does Descartes use in relation to cause and effect regarding the existence of certain ideas which he finds in his mind? What has this principle become known as? Illustrate your answer. (3 marks) - Answer
2. What three alternatives (aside from God Himself) does Descartes consider as possible sources for the idea of God in his mind? State why he rejects each of them. (6 marks) - Answer
3. Briefly state the trademark argument. Why is it called that? (3 marks) - Answer
4. List two possible criticisms of the trademark argument. (2 marks) - Answer

It has become known as the causal adequacy principle (1 mark), and it basically involves the idea that a cause must possess “as much reality” as its effect. (1 mark) So, an idea of infinity must have been created by an infinite being (the infinity of the effect suggests the infinity of the cause). (1 mark) One mark for each possible source considered and reason for rejection. Firstly, he considers that the idea might have come from himself (i.e. is adventitious), but rejects this because (bearing in mind the causal adequacy principle) he is not an infinite being. Secondly, he wonders whether he has arrived at the idea of infinity through thinking of the opposite of the finite, but rejects this also because the idea of infinity seems to possess “more reality”, thus suggesting that it originated first. Lastly, he supposes that he has the idea of his own potential infinity (that he is becoming more infinite gradually), but rejects this because something cannot become infinite by degrees, because that means it would never reach there (adding one more thing to a pile doesn’t make that pile infinite). The trademark argument is: I have an idea of God (an infinite being); the idea is real, I cannot have created it, and it did not come from nowhere; all ideas must have as much reality in their cause as in their effect; so, an infinite being (God) must have been the cause of the idea of an infinite being; therefore, God exists. (2 marks) This is therefore known as the trademark argument because God has left the idea on my mind in a similar way to a craftsman who makes a pot (for example), and leaves his signature or mark on the bottom. Possible criticisms might focus on a number of different aspects of Descartes’s argument – give yourself two marks for any two valid objections. For instance, we might question whether Descartes indeed has a clear idea of infinity (thinking that he does is open to self-deception and is difficult to prove). Similarly, we might argue that an idea of infinity does not actually have to be itself infinite – for instance, we can suggest infinity by thinking of ‘something that never ends’, but the idea itself is finite. If this last point is true, then we can of course argue that the idea does not come from an infinite being, but is rather a conclusion based on finite things (a possibility which Descartes had rejected).

How Did You Do?

0-15: Factitious Ideas. Well, perhaps you didn’t exactly make your answers up, but you need to focus on getting the main arguments clear in your mind.

16-30: Secondary Qualities. Generally sound, but you need to pay closer attention to the detail involved in the arguments, as well as look at some valid criticisms.

31-45: Clear And Distinct. A very assured performance. Look back on what you got wrong, but generally an impressive display.

46-53: A Perfect Being. Quite dazzling, really - you're not me are you?!

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